ABSTRACT Current dengue vector control strategies, focusing on reactive implementation of insecticide-based interventions in response to clinically apparent disease manifestations, tend to be inefficient, short-lived, and unsustainable within the worldwide epidemiological scenario of virus epidemic recrudescence. As a result of a series of expert meetings and deliberations, a paradigm shift is occurring and a new strategy, using risk stratification at the city level in order to concentrate proactive, sustained efforts in areas at high risk for transmission, has emerged. In this article, the authors 1) outline this targeted, proactive intervention strategy, within the context of dengue epidemiology, the dynamics of its transmission, and current Aedes control strategies, and 2) provide support from published literature for the need to empirically test its impact on dengue transmission as well as on the size of disease outbreaks. As chikungunya and Zika viruses continue to expand their range, the need for a science-based, proactive approach for control of urban Aedes spp. mosquitoes will become a central focus of integrated disease management planning.

RESUMEN Las estrategias actuales de control de vectores del dengue, centradas en la ejecución reactiva de intervenciones con insecticidas en respuesta a la aparición de cuadros clínicos evidentes de la enfermedad, suelen ser ineficientes, de duración limitada e insostenibles en el contexto epidemiológico mundial, caracterizado por la recrudescencia de las epidemias virales. Como resultado de una serie de reuniones y deliberaciones entre expertos, está en proceso un cambio de paradigma y ha surgido una nueva estrategia, que consiste en estratificar el riesgo de cada ciudad para concentrar y mantener los esfuerzos proactivos donde hay un alto riesgo de transmisión. En este artículo, los autores 1) describen esta estrategia de intervención específica y proactiva dentro del contexto de las características epidemiológicas del dengue, la dinámica de su transmisión y las estrategias actuales de control de Aedes y 2) fundamentan con fuentes bibliográficas la necesidad de demostrar empíricamente las repercusiones de esta estrategia sobre la transmisión del dengue y el tamaño de los brotes. Dado que los virus del chikunguña y el Zika siguen ampliando su alcance, uno de los objetivos primordiales de la planificación de la atención integrada de estas enfermedades estará determinado por la necesidad de adoptar un enfoque científico y proactivo del control urbano de los mosquitos del género Aedes.

Resumo: Os serviços de saúde de primeira linha, ou aqueles com uma abordagem de atenção primária, servem como indutor forte de comportamentos de busca de cuidados de saúde. Estudos sobre a associação entre a prevalência de doenças crônicas e problemas agudos e o uso de serviços enfatizam a importância dos determinantes socioeconômicos desses padrões de utilização. Como parte de um estudo transversal de 408 famílias em Centro Habana, Cuba, foram realizadas entrevistas domiciliares entre abril e junho de 2010 para analisar os determinantes sócio-demográficos dos problemas de saúde agudos e crônicos e do uso de serviços de saúde. Foram utilizados modelos bivariados e de regressão logística. Quinhentas e vinte e nove pessoas relatavam história de doença crônica. Durante o mês anterior, 155 delas relataram uma exacerbação da doença crônica e 50 tiveram algum problema agudo, não relacionado à doença crônica. Cento e sete pessoas sem doença crônica referiram problemas agudos. Idade era o principal determinante da presença de doença crônica. As mulheres adultas e os idosos apresentavam probabilidade maior de relatar problemas agudos. Pacientes com doença crônica utilizavam os serviços de saúde com maior frequência. Nenhuma variável sociodemográfica esteve associada à utilização dos serviços ou à consulta com o médico de família. Embora o médico de família seja definido como a porta de entrada ao sistema de saúde, isso ocorria em apenas 54% dos pacientes que contataram os serviços de saúde, portanto comprometendo o papel do médico como conselheiro e ponto focal das questões de saúde das pessoas. A importância das doenças crônicas enfatiza a necessidade de fortalecer o papel essencial do médico de família. Novas políticas econômicas em Cuba, com estímulo para a autonomia laboral e a iniciativa privada, poderão aumentar a tensão sobre o sistema de saúde exclusivamente público. No entanto, o sistema de saúde cubano já mostrou ser capaz de se adaptar a novos desafios, e espera-se que as premissas básicas da política de saúde cubana sejam preservadas.

Abstract: First-line health services with a primary health care approach are a strong trigger for adequate health-care-seeking behavior. Research on the association between prevalence of chronic diseases and acute illnesses and use of health services emphasizes the importance of socioeconomic determinants in such patterns of utilization. In a cross-sectional study of 408 families in Centro Habana, Cuba, home interviews were conducted between April and June 2010 to analyze socio-demographic determinants of acute and chronic health problems and use of formal health services. Bivariate and logistic regression models were used. 529 persons reported a chronic disease. During the previous month, 155 of the latter reported an exacerbation and 50 experienced an unrelated acute health problem. 107 persons without chronic diseases reported acute health problems. Age was the strongest determinant of chronic disease prevalence. Adult women and the elderly were more likely to report acute problems. Acute patients with underlying chronic disease used formal services more often. No socio-demographic variable was associated with services use or consultation with the family physician. While the family physician is defined as the system's entry-point, this was the case for only 54% of patients that had used formal services, thus compromising the physician's role in counseling patients and summarizing their health issues. The importance of chronic diseases highlights the need to strengthen the family physician's pivotal role. New economic policies in Cuba, stimulating self-employment and private initiative, may increase the strain on the exclusively public health care system. Still, the Cuban health system has demonstrated its ability to adapt to new challenges, and the basic premises of Cuba's health policy are expected to be preserved.

Resumen: Los servicios de salud de primera línea, o aquellos centrados en la atención primaria, sirven como un fuerte inductor de comportamientos en la búsqueda de cuidados de salud. Estudios sobre la asociación entre la prevalencia de enfermedades crónicas y problemas agudos, y la utilización de servicios de salud, resaltan la importancia de los determinantes socioeconómicos en estos patrones de utilización. Como parte de un estudio transversal con 408 familias en el Centro Habana, Cuba, se realizaron entrevistas domiciliarias entre abril y junio de 2010 para analizar los determinantes sociodemográficos de los problemas de salud agudos y crónicos y el uso de los servicios de salud. Se utilizaron modelos bivariados y de regresión logística. 529 personas relataron la historia de la enfermedad crónica. Durante el mes anterior, 155 de ellas relataron una exacerbación de la enfermedad crónica, y 50 tuvieron algún problema agudo, no relacionado con la enfermedad crónica. 107 personas -sin enfermedad crónica- informaron de problemas agudos. La edad era el principal determinante en la presencia de una enfermedad crónica. Las mujeres adultas y los ancianos presentaban una probabilidad mayor de relatar problemas agudos. Los pacientes con una enfermedad crónica utilizaban los servicios de salud con mayor frecuencia. Ninguna variable sociodemográfica estuvo asociada a la utilización de los servicios o a la consulta con el médico de familia. Pese a que el médico de familia sea definido como la puerta de entrada al sistema de salud, esto ocurría en solamente un 54% de los pacientes que contactaron con los servicios de salud, por lo que se ve comprometido el papel del médico como consejero y punto de referencia principal sobre las cuestiones de salud de la población. La importancia de las enfermedades crónicas destaca la necesidad de fortalecer el papel esencial del médico de familia. Nuevas políticas económicas en Cuba, con estímulos para la autonomía laboral y la iniciativa privada, podrán aumentar la tensión sobre el sistema de salud exclusivamente público. No obstante, el sistema de salud cubano, ya mostró ser capaz de adaptarse a nuevos desafíos, y se espera que las premisas básicas de la política de salud cubana sean preservadas.

Resumo: Os serviços de saúde de primeira linha, ou aqueles com uma abordagem de atenção primária, servem como indutor forte de comportamentos de busca de cuidados de saúde. Estudos sobre a associação entre a prevalência de doenças crônicas e problemas agudos e o uso de serviços enfatizam a importância dos determinantes socioeconômicos desses padrões de utilização. Como parte de um estudo transversal de 408 famílias em Centro Habana, Cuba, foram realizadas entrevistas domiciliares entre abril e junho de 2010 para analisar os determinantes sócio-demográficos dos problemas de saúde agudos e crônicos e do uso de serviços de saúde. Foram utilizados modelos bivariados e de regressão logística. Quinhentas e vinte e nove pessoas relatavam história de doença crônica. Durante o mês anterior, 155 delas relataram uma exacerbação da doença crônica e 50 tiveram algum problema agudo, não relacionado à doença crônica. Cento e sete pessoas sem doença crônica referiram problemas agudos. Idade era o principal determinante da presença de doença crônica. As mulheres adultas e os idosos apresentavam probabilidade maior de relatar problemas agudos. Pacientes com doença crônica utilizavam os serviços de saúde com maior frequência. Nenhuma variável sociodemográfica esteve associada à utilização dos serviços ou à consulta com o médico de família. Embora o médico de família seja definido como a porta de entrada ao sistema de saúde, isso ocorria em apenas 54% dos pacientes que contataram os serviços de saúde, portanto comprometendo o papel do médico como conselheiro e ponto focal das questões de saúde das pessoas. A importância das doenças crônicas enfatiza a necessidade de fortalecer o papel essencial do médico de família. Novas políticas econômicas em Cuba, com estímulo para a autonomia laboral e a iniciativa privada, poderão aumentar a tensão sobre o sistema de saúde exclusivamente público. No entanto, o sistema de saúde cubano já mostrou ser capaz de se adaptar a novos desafios, e espera-se que as premissas básicas da política de saúde cubana sejam preservadas.

Abstract: First-line health services with a primary health care approach are a strong trigger for adequate health-care-seeking behavior. Research on the association between prevalence of chronic diseases and acute illnesses and use of health services emphasizes the importance of socioeconomic determinants in such patterns of utilization. In a cross-sectional study of 408 families in Centro Habana, Cuba, home interviews were conducted between April and June 2010 to analyze socio-demographic determinants of acute and chronic health problems and use of formal health services. Bivariate and logistic regression models were used. 529 persons reported a chronic disease. During the previous month, 155 of the latter reported an exacerbation and 50 experienced an unrelated acute health problem. 107 persons without chronic diseases reported acute health problems. Age was the strongest determinant of chronic disease prevalence. Adult women and the elderly were more likely to report acute problems. Acute patients with underlying chronic disease used formal services more often. No socio-demographic variable was associated with services use or consultation with the family physician. While the family physician is defined as the system's entry-point, this was the case for only 54% of patients that had used formal services, thus compromising the physician's role in counseling patients and summarizing their health issues. The importance of chronic diseases highlights the need to strengthen the family physician's pivotal role. New economic policies in Cuba, stimulating self-employment and private initiative, may increase the strain on the exclusively public health care system. Still, the Cuban health system has demonstrated its ability to adapt to new challenges, and the basic premises of Cuba's health policy are expected to be preserved.

Resumen: Los servicios de salud de primera línea, o aquellos centrados en la atención primaria, sirven como un fuerte inductor de comportamientos en la búsqueda de cuidados de salud. Estudios sobre la asociación entre la prevalencia de enfermedades crónicas y problemas agudos, y la utilización de servicios de salud, resaltan la importancia de los determinantes socioeconómicos en estos patrones de utilización. Como parte de un estudio transversal con 408 familias en el Centro Habana, Cuba, se realizaron entrevistas domiciliarias entre abril y junio de 2010 para analizar los determinantes sociodemográficos de los problemas de salud agudos y crónicos y el uso de los servicios de salud. Se utilizaron modelos bivariados y de regresión logística. 529 personas relataron la historia de la enfermedad crónica. Durante el mes anterior, 155 de ellas relataron una exacerbación de la enfermedad crónica, y 50 tuvieron algún problema agudo, no relacionado con la enfermedad crónica. 107 personas -sin enfermedad crónica- informaron de problemas agudos. La edad era el principal determinante en la presencia de una enfermedad crónica. Las mujeres adultas y los ancianos presentaban una probabilidad mayor de relatar problemas agudos. Los pacientes con una enfermedad crónica utilizaban los servicios de salud con mayor frecuencia. Ninguna variable sociodemográfica estuvo asociada a la utilización de los servicios o a la consulta con el médico de familia. Pese a que el médico de familia sea definido como la puerta de entrada al sistema de salud, esto ocurría en solamente un 54% de los pacientes que contactaron con los servicios de salud, por lo que se ve comprometido el papel del médico como consejero y punto de referencia principal sobre las cuestiones de salud de la población. La importancia de las enfermedades crónicas destaca la necesidad de fortalecer el papel esencial del médico de familia. Nuevas políticas económicas en Cuba, con estímulos para la autonomía laboral y la iniciativa privada, podrán aumentar la tensión sobre el sistema de salud exclusivamente público. No obstante, el sistema de salud cubano, ya mostró ser capaz de adaptarse a nuevos desafíos, y se espera que las premisas básicas de la política de salud cubana sean preservadas.

Abstract: INTRODUCTION Information regarding the cost of implementing insecticide-treated curtains (ITCs) is scarce. Therefore, we evaluated the ITC implementation cost, in addition to the costs of intensive conventional routine activities of the Aedes control program in the city of Guantanamo, Cuba. METHODS A cost-analysis study was conducted from the perspective of the Aedes control program, nested in an ITC effectiveness trial, during 2009-2010. Data for this study were obtained from bookkeeping records and activity registers of the Provincial Aedes Control Programme Unit and the account records of the ITC trial. RESULTS The annual cost of the routine Aedes control program activities was US$16.80 per household (p.h). Among 3,015 households, 6,714 ITCs were distributed. The total average cost per ITC distributed was US$3.42, and 74.3% of this cost was attributed to the cost of purchasing the ITCs. The annualized costs p.h. of ITC implementation was US$3.80. The additional annualized cost for deploying ITCs represented 19% and 48.4% of the total cost of the routine Aedes control and adult-stage Aedes control programs, respectively. The trial did not lead to further reductions in the already relatively low Aedes infestation levels. CONCLUSIONS At current curtain prices, ITC deployment can hardly be considered an efficient option in Guantanamo and other comparable environments.

Avaliamos o rendimento diagnóstico da fibrobroncoscopia óptica no diagnóstico de tuberculose pulmonar com baciloscopia negativa em pacientes atendidos em um hospital de referência em Lima, Peru. Dos 611 pacientes submetidos ao procedimento, 140 (23%) foram diagnosticados com tuberculose com base nas amostras de LBA. Ser mais jovem e do sexo masculino foi associado a culturas positivas. Além disso, 287 pacientes realizaram baciloscopia de escarro após a broncoscopia, e os resultados aumentaram o rendimento diagnóstico em 22% em relação às amostras de LBA. Concluímos que amostras de LBA e de escarro pós-broncoscopia tiveram um bom rendimento diagnóstico nos pacientes com suspeita de tuberculose pulmonar com baciloscopia negativa.

We evaluated the diagnostic yield of fiberoptic bronchoscopy for the diagnosis of smear-negative pulmonary tuberculosis in patients treated at a referral hospital in Lima, Peru. Of the 611 patients who underwent the procedure, 140 (23%) were diagnosed with tuberculosis based on the analysis of BAL samples. Being young and being male were significantly associated with positive cultures. In addition, 287 patients underwent post-bronchoscopic sputum smear testing for AFB, the results of which increased the diagnostic yield by 22% over that obtained through the analysis of BAL samples alone. We conclude that the analysis of BAL samples and post-bronchoscopic sputum samples provides a high diagnostic yield in smear-negative patients suspected of having pulmonary tuberculosis.

This study developed a clinical score based on clinical and radiographic data for the diagnosis of smear-negative pulmonary tuberculosis (SNPT). SNPT was defined as a positive culture in Ogawa in a patient with two negative sputum smears. Data from patients admitted to the emergency ward with respiratory symptoms and negative acid-fast bacilli (AFB) smears was analyzed by means of logistic regression to develop the predictive score.Two hundred and sixty two patients were included. Twenty patients had SNPT. The variables included in the final model were hemoptysis, weight loss, age > 45 years old, productive cough, upper-lobe infiltrate, and miliary infiltrate. With those, a score was constructed. The score values ranged from -2 to 6. The area under the curve for the ROC curve was 0.83 (95% CI 0.74-0.90). A score of value 0 or less was associated with a sensitivity of 93% and a score of more than 4 points was associated with a specificity of 92% for SNPT. Fifty-two point twenty-nine percent of patients had scores of less than one or more than four, what provided strong evidence against and in favor, respectively, for the diagnosis of SNPT. The score developed is a cheap and useful clinical tool for the diagnosis of SNPT and can be used to help therapeutic decisions in patients with suspicion of having SNPT.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze home care services in Cuba and determine how length of stay, per-day cost, and per-patient cost vary by diagnosis and by the area of the country in which the services are rendered. METHODS: Patient information was analyzed for 837 individuals who were enrolled in home care services between July 2001 and June 2002 in the following four municipalities: (1) Playa municipality (a metropolitan urban area) in the province of the City of Havana; Cruces municipality (an urban, but not metropolitan, area) in the province of Cienfuegos; Unión de Reyes municipality (a rural area) in the province of Matanzas; and Fomento municipality (a mountainous rural area) in the province of Sancti Spiritus Analysis of the mean length of stay for home care services was conducted using the Kaplan-Meier survival curve method. The impact of the following criteria on the probability and timing of discharge was also assessed: diagnosis at time of enrollment (respiratory, gastrointestinal, obstetrical/gynecological, hospital discharge follow-up, and other causes), area in which services were rendered, and patient gender and age. The total service, per-patient, and per-day costs were determined for each municipality. Adjusted multilinear regression models were used to determine how length of stay, diagnosis upon enrollment, and service area affected cost. RESULTS: The diagnoses most frequently requiring home care were respiratory illness (31.4%), hospital follow-up of acute condition (15.5%), obstetrical/ gynecological illness (10.8%), and gastrointestinal disorder (8.1%). The mean length of stay was 6 days (95% confidence interval: 5.75 to 6.25). In Fomento, the probability of patients enrolling in home care was 66% lower than in Cruces and 30% lower than in Playa and Unión de Reyes. The total direct cost of home care in the municipalities studied ranged, in Cuban pesos, from $3 983.54 to $9 624.87. The per-day cost ranged from $2.57 to $6.88, and the per-patient cost from $23.04 to $42.78. The length of stay had a direct impact on per-patient cost (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: A longer length of stay was observed in the mountainous rural area; however, this was where the lowest per-patient and per-day costs were incurred. Length of stay can be used as an indicator for measuring the quality of home care services. From a cost perspective, length of stay must be evaluated based on diagnosis and geographic area.

OBJETIVOS: Analizar el tiempo de estadía en ingreso en el hogar (IH) y su costo diario y por paciente en Cuba, según el diagnóstico al ingreso y la zona donde se brinda el servicio. MÉTODOS: Se analizó la información de los 837 pacientes en IH entre julio de 2001 y junio de 2002 en un área del municipio Playa, en Ciudad de La Habana (zona urbana metropolitana), una del municipio Cruces, en Cienfuegos (zona urbana no metropolitana), otra del Municipio Unión de Reyes, en Matanzas (zona rural) y una de Fomento, en Sancti Spiritus (zona rural montañosa). Se analizó la mediana del tiempo del IH mediante curvas de supervivencia Kaplan Meier y se evaluó el efecto del diagnóstico al ingreso (afecciones respiratorias, gastrointestinales, ginecobstétricas, egreso hospitalario precoz y otras causas), la zona del IH, el sexo y la edad, sobre la posibilidad de egresar del IH. Para cada municipio se calculó el costo directo del servicio, el costo por paciente y el costo por día de estadía. Se ajustaron modelos de regresión lineal múltiple para identificar el efecto que sobre el costo por paciente tienen el tiempo de estadía, el diagnóstico al ingreso y el área donde se presta el servicio de IH. RESULTADOS: La causa más frecuente de IH en los municipios estudiados fueron las afecciones respiratorias (31,4%), seguidas del egreso hospitalario precoz (15,5%), las afecciones ginecobstétricas (10,8%) y los trastornos gastrointestinales (8,1%). La mediana del tiempo de estadía fue de 6 días (IC95%: 5,75 a 6,25). En Fomento los pacientes tuvieron 66% menos probabilidad de egresar que en Cruces y 30% menos que en Playa y Unión de Reyes. El costo directo del IH en los municipios estudiados medido en pesos cubanos ($) varió entre $3 983,54 y $9 624,87. El costo por día de estadía fue de $2,57 a $6,88, mientras el costo por paciente fue de $23,04 a $42,78. El tiempo de estadía tuvo un efecto intrínseco sobre el costo por paciente (P < 0,0001). CONCLUSIONES: El tiempo de estadía resultó mayor en el área rural montañosa, sin embargo, esta fue el área que generó los menores costos por paciente y los menores costos por día de estadía. El tiempo de estadía puede utilizarse como un indicador de la calidad del servicio del ingreso en el hogar. Desde el punto de vista económico, el tiempo en IH debe analizarse según el diagnóstico al ingreso y el área geográfica.